A bit of Grammar

Structuralism: examines the language from a synchronic (existing now) rather than a diachronic (existing and changing over time) point of view.
See: Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Swiss professor

Phonemes: sounds or letters (e.g. C)
Monemes: words (eg. Cat)
Discourse: extended speech; the code of language used to express thought.

Language: sign system
'language games' (Wittgenstein): use of language in social practice; the association of sound and what it represents is the outcome of collective learning

Syntagmatic series: (contiguity, combination): the linear relationships between linguistic elements in a sentence (e.g.: subject-object-verb)
Paradigmatic series: (substitution): the relationship between elements within a sentence and other elements which are syntactically interchangeable (e.g.: verb-verb, noun-noun)

Metonymy

Metaphor: descriptions that are not literally true (eg.: 'tower of strength', 'a glaring error')
--> generated by paradigmatic substitution through perception of similarity

Metonymy: naming an attribute or adjunct of the thing instead of the thing itself (eg.: 'crown' for 'royalty', 'turf' for horse-racing, 'deeps' for ocean)

Synecdoche: naming the part for the whole (eg.: 'keels' for ships)
--> both generated by syntagmatic combination through perception of contiguity